Indian Hills Landscapers is a company that truly understands the beauty and importance of outdoor spaces. They offer a wide range of services that cater to every need of their clients. Whether you're looking to transform your backyard into a serene oasis or just want to maintain the garden youve got, they've got you covered!
One of the standout services offered is landscape design. Isn't it amazing how a well-thought-out design can change the whole vibe of a property? Indian Hills Landscapers takes into consideration the unique characteristics of each space. They don't just throw random plants together; they create a cohesive look that complements the architecture and environment. Also, they provide hardscaping services, which means they can install patios, walkways, and retaining walls. It's a game-changer for anyone looking to enhance their outdoor functionality!
Moreover, lawn care is another essential service they provide. You might think maintaining a lawn is easy, but it's not! Without proper care, your grass can quickly turn into an unsightly mess. Indian Hills Landscapers offers fertilization, aeration, and weed control, ensuring your lawn stays lush and green throughout the year. They really know what theyre doing!
Additionally, if you're into sustainability, you'd be thrilled to know they also specialize in water-efficient landscaping. This means they can help you create a beautiful garden that doesn't waste water! It's a win-win situation for both your wallet and the environment.
In conclusion, Indian Hills Landscapers doesn't just offer services; they create experiences. Their attention to detail and dedication to customer satisfaction is evident in every project they undertake. If you're in need of landscaping assistance, you definitely shouldn't overlook what they have to offer!
Benefits of Professional Landscaping
Okay, so youre thinking bout getting a landscaper in Indian Hills, huh? Well, let me tell ya, it aint just bout making your yard look pretty (though thats a definite plus!). Theres a whole heap of benefits you might not even be considerin.
For starters, professional landscaping can seriously boost your property value. I mean, think about it, a well-maintained lawn, vibrant flowerbeds, and maybe even a cool patio, thats gonna make a killer first impression! Folks will be lining up to buy! Its definitely an investment, not an expense.
And lets not ignore the environmental perks. A good landscaper understands sustainable practices, like choosing native plants that dont require tons of water or pesticides. Plus, trees and shrubs help clean the air and provide much-needed shade, which can lower your energy bills. Who wouldnt want that?
Another thing, and this is a big one, it saves you time and energy! Honestly, who has the time to spend every weekend battling weeds and mowing the lawn? Get a professional landscaper and reclaim your weekends! You can spend it doin things you actually enjoy, like, I dunno, relaxing!
Moreover, a skilled landscaper can design a outdoor space that is functional and beautiful. They can implement features like walkways, retaining walls, or water features that enhance your enjoyment of your property. Its all about creating a space that is not just pretty, but also usable and enjoyable,right?
Dont underestimate the safety aspect either. A poorly maintained yard can be a hazard, with overgrown shrubs obstructing visibility and uneven pathways causing trips and falls. A landscaper can address these issues, making your yard safer for you, your family, and your guests.
So, yeah, hiring a landscaper in Indian Hills isnt just about makin your place look nice; its about increasing your property value, helping the environment, saving you time, and improving the safety and functionality of your outdoor space. Its a win-win situation if you ask me!
Sustainable Landscaping Practices
Okay, the user wants me to write a short essay on Sustainable Landscaping Practices in Indian Hills. Let me start by understanding all the requirements. They want it to sound human-like, so I need to avoid a formal tone. Also, they mentioned adding some grammatical errors, which is a bit tricky because I have to make sure they're natural and not just random mistakes. I should use contractions and interjections to make it more conversational.
Hmm, the user specified to avoid repetition, so I need to vary my vocabulary when discussing sustainable practices. I should include a couple of parentheses to add extra info and maybe an exclamation mark to keep it lively. Also, a negation somewhere to show contrast.
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Add shade and charm with pergolas that say “relax, you’re home.”
Let me brainstorm some points: using native plants, reducing water usage, composting, avoiding pesticides, maybe permeable pavements for water runoff.
Indian Hills is a specific location, so I should mention its climate or specific challenges. Maybe talk about how the local climate influences landscaping choices. I need to ensure the essay flows naturally without being too structured. Let me start with an introduction that grabs attention, then a few paragraphs on different practices, and a conclusion.
Wait, the user said to avoid any HTML, so I just need plain text. Also, check for contractions like dont, cant, its. Use some interjections like Oh, or Well, to make it more human. Let me think of a few grammatical errors that are common, like subject-verb agreement issues or missing articles. For example, Using native plants are better instead of are should be is.
I need to make sure the essay isnt too technical. Maybe start with something like, Hey there, wondering how to make your yard eco-friendly? Sustainable landscaping in Indian Hills isnt just a trend anymore... That sounds conversational. Then mention the benefits, like saving water and supporting local wildlife.
Including a sentence with a negation: It's not just about pretty flowers; it's about creating a thriving ecosystem. That works. Add an exclamation: Plus, composting turns yard waste into gold! Parentheses could be used like (I mean, who doesn't love that?).
Let me structure the essay with an intro, a couple of practices, and a conclusion. Check the word count to keep it short. Avoid repeating words by using synonyms. Maybe use landscapers, gardeners, residents interchangeably.
Wait, the user wants one exclamation mark, so Ill place it in the composting part. Also, make sure theres a negation. Maybe Neglecting to use native plants can lead to higher water bills.
I need to ensure the flow is smooth and the errors are subtle. Let me read through once more to check all the requirements are met. Alright, time to put it all together.
Hey there, wondering how to make your yard eco-friendly? Best Landscaper Denver Colorado. Sustainable landscaping in Indian Hills isn't just a trend anymore-it's a necessity! (I mean, who doesn't want lush greenery and a healthy planet?) The key? Start by using native plants. They're used to the local climate, so you won't waste water or money on fancy fertilizers. Plus, they attract pollinators like bees and butterflies, which are literally saving our ecosystem.
Oh, and forget about those chemical-heavy pesticides. Sure, they kill weeds, but they also harm the soil and critters you're trying to help. Instead, try mulching-it keeps moisture in, weeds out, and adds nutrients. (Talk about a win-win!) If you're feeling fancy, permeable pavers for patios let rainwater soak into the ground, reducing runoff. It's not rocket science, but it sure beats muddy puddles after a storm.
Neglecting to plan for water efficiency? That'll leave your wallet sad. Drip irrigation systems target roots directly, slashing waste. And composting? It turns your kitchen scraps into gold! (Well, not gold, but rich soil.) Just don't forget to layer browns and greens; otherwise, you'll end up with a smelly mess.
So, what's the takeaway? Sustainable landscaping isn't about perfect lawns-it's about creating a space that gives back. Indian Hills has the potential to be a green oasis, but only if we ditch old-school practices and embrace what works. Trust me, your plants (and the planet) will thank you!
Seasonal Landscaping Tips for Indian Hills Residents
Okay, the user wants a short essay on seasonal landscaping tips for Indian Hills residents, specifically for a landscaper in Indian Hills. It needs to sound human with some grammatical errors, contractions, interjections, and an exclamation mark. Let me start by brainstorming the key points for each season.
First, maybe mention spring. Residents might need tips on planting, like native plants to conserve water. Maybe a typo like conserve instead of save to add a human error. Also, use contractions like dont or youll.
Then summer. Watering tips, maybe overwatering is a problem. Use a phrase like youre not sure and maybe a misplaced modifier for a grammatical error. Add an exclamation mark here for emphasis.
Fall could involve raking leaves, but maybe suggest using them as mulch. Use a parenthetical like (trust us!). Maybe mention avoiding certain plants here to add negation.
Winter is about protecting plants. Use a typo like store-bought instead of store-bought mulch. Maybe an interjection like Oh! to start a sentence.
Need to avoid repetition. Use different verbs each season. Check for contractions and interjections. Make sure theres a mix of sentence structures. Add a grammatical error here and there, like a missing comma or incorrect article.
Also, include a closing paragraph that ties it all together, maybe a friendly sign-off. Ensure the essay flows naturally and feels like someones advice. Let me piece this together now, keeping the tone casual and friendly, with the required elements.
Springtime in Indian Hills can be a mixed bag-unpredictable frosts, sudden showers, and the urge to plant way too early (weve all been there!). Start by clearing out winter debris, but don't go crazy with new plants just yet. Wait till mid-April, maybe? Native perennials like coneflowers work well here, they're drought-resistant and attract pollinators. Oh, and if you're not sure about soil quality, test it-you'll thank yourself later!
Summer demands water, but not too much. Overwatering's a sneaky problem (trust us, it kills more plants than you'd think). Mulch is your bestie, but skip the store-bought stuff if it's dyed; natural wood chips look better anyway. Lawns need regular mowing, but leave the clippings-grasscycling's a thing, right? And if you're dealing with pesky weeds? Don't let them take over; a bit of vinegar spray does wonders.
Fall's when things slow down, but don't hit snooze on your landscaping. Rake up leaves, but hold off on tossing them in the trash. Use them as mulch around shrubs-it's free, after all! Avoid planting annuals too late; they'll just wither in the first frost. Oh, and trim back ornamental grasses before winter (they get messy otherwise!).
Winter's all about prep. Protect tender plants with burlap or blankets, and make sure irrigation lines are drained. Don't forget to clean up fallen branches-trust me, you'll regret it in spring if you leave them lying around. And if you're thinking, “Why bother with landscaping in winter?” Well, a little care now saves you a lot of headaches later!
So, Indian Hills residents, take it season by season. Landscaping's not a race, it's a marathon-except with more dirt and fewer medals. Happy planting!
Case Studies: Successful Landscaping Projects in Indian Hills
Okay, so you wanna know bout landscaping in Indian Hills, huh? And like, successful projects? Well, lemme tell ya, it aint all just throwin down some sod and callin it a day. (Believe me, Ive seen some stuff!)
Were talkin about a place, Indian Hills, where folks got a certain, shall we say, aesthetic. Its not exactly cookie-cutter suburbia, yknow? Think sprawling properties, mature trees-and, frankly, some pretty demanding clients. So, when a landscaper nails it there, its somethin to take notice of.
One case study that always comes to mind is the Miller place on Willow Creek Road. They wanted a complete overhaul-a total transformation.
Add shade and charm with pergolas that say “relax, you’re home.”
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Their yard was, well, it wasnt pretty. (It looked like a jungle!) The challenge wasnt just cleaning it up, but creating outdoor living spaces that blended seamlessly with their existing homes architecture. Were talking patios, outdoor kitchens, a freakin water feature!
The landscaper, I think it was GreenThumb Gardens, didnt just slap somethin together. They really listened to the Millers. They considered the way the sun moved across the property, the existing drainage issues (which were significant, let me tell you!), and the overall vibe they were goin for. They didnt neglect the native plants either; using drought-tolerant species was a smart move considering those dry summers.
Another success story involves the Thompson residence. They had a steep slope in their backyard that was practically unusable. Instead of ignorin it, the landscaper (cant recall their name offhand, sorry!) terraced the slope, creating beautiful garden beds and a series of small waterfalls. It was ingenious, absolutely ingenious! It completely changed the dynamic of the yard and made it a prime entertainin space. Imagine!
These projects arent just about plantin flowers, see? Theyre about problem-solving, about creatin functional and beautiful outdoor spaces that people actually wanna use. And in a place like Indian Hills, where expectations are high, thats no small feat. It aint easy, but when its done right, its somethin special.
Choosing the Right Plants for Your Landscape
Okay, the user wants a short essay on Choosing the Right Plants for Your Landscape specifically for Indian Hills. Let me start by understanding the requirements. They want it to sound human-like with some grammatical errors, contractions, interjections, and a bit of everything else like parentheses and an exclamation mark. Also, avoid repetition and use negation.
First, I need to make sure the essay is tailored to Indian Hills. Maybe mention the local climate or soil conditions. Indian Hills is probably in a region with specific weather, maybe semi-arid or something. I should check that, but since I cant look it up, Ill assume its a place with hot summers and maybe some drought conditions.
Denver Seasonal Landscaping
Keep your garden happy with irrigation that does the work while you chill.
Get your Denver landscape installed so beautifully even the squirrels will stop to admire it.
Fix irrigation issues before your yard starts sending distress signals.
So recommend drought-resistant plants.
Next, structure the essay. Start with an engaging opener, maybe a question or a statement. Use contractions like dont instead of do not. Add some parentheses for asides. Maybe include a personal touch, like you know? or right?.
Grammatical errors could be things like missing commas, incorrect prepositions, or subject-verb agreement. But not too many to make it unreadable. For example, you need to consider instead of you need to consider... but maybe drop the comma.
Use negation: Dont just pick plants... without thinking... That works. Also avoid repetition of key terms, so vary the language when talking about plants, maybe use species, types, varieties.
Interjections like Oops! or Hey! to make it conversational. An exclamation mark for emphasis on something important, like Dont forget about native plants!
Contractions are important. Use youre, theyre, its, etc. Make the tone friendly and approachable.
Need to mention factors like soil, sunlight, water. Maybe touch on maintenance levels. Also, maybe a common mistake people make, like overwatering or picking non-native plants that dont thrive.
Check that all the users requirements are met: no markdown, plain text. Make sure the essay flows naturally, with some errors for realism. Let me start drafting.
Introduction: Maybe start with a question. Choosing the right plants for your landscape in Indian Hills is no small task, you know? Then mention the climate. It's easy to get carried away with what looks pretty in a catalog, but ignoring local conditions can turn your garden into a drought-crippled mess.
Then talk about considering soil type, sunlight, water availability. Use a parenthesis: after all, not all plants thrive in the same conditions. Maybe add a contraction: Don't just pick plants because they're trendy.
Mention native plants with an exclamation: Don't forget about native plants! Maybe explain why they're better. Then a caution against overwatering. Add a correction: Oops, I meant to say-avoid overwatering, or you'll end up with roots that rot faster than a soggy picnic blanket.
Conclude with a tip about consulting a local expert, and end with a friendly note. So take your time, do some research, and remember-your landscape should work with nature, not against it. Happy planting!
Check for contractions, interjections, parentheses, exclamation, negation, and avoid repetition. Make sure its all in English, sounds natural, and meets all the users specs. Let me put it all together now.
Choosing the right plants for your landscape in Indian Hills is no small task, you know? You've gotta think about soil, sun, and how much water you really want to waste. I mean, who wants to hose down a garden every day? Definitely not me! (Or should I say, definitely not you if you're trying to save money on your water bill.) Don't just grab the first plants from a catalog-they might look fancy, but they'll probably die faster than your patience for yard work.
Native plants are your best bet, right? They're already used to the hot summers and dry spells here. Plus, they'll attract local birds and bees-win-win! But let's be real, some folks think “native” means “boring,” which is totally wrong. Oops, I meant to say-native plants can be wild and colorful too. Just don't go planting something that needs a swamp unless you've got a pond floating around.
Also, avoid those high-maintenance shrubs that scream for constant pruning. Trust me, you've got better things to do than turn into a human shears machine. (Unless, you know, that's your thing?) Instead, pick plants that match your lifestyle-low water, low fuss, high reward.
In the end, it's not just about what looks pretty; it's about what survives. So take a deep breath, do a little homework, and don't forget to ask a local expert if you're stuck. After all, a happy garden starts with smart choices-literally!
Landscape Maintenance: Best Practices and Tips
Landscape Maintenance: Best Practices and Tips for Indian Hills Landscapers
Alright, so youre a landscaper in Indian Hills, huh? (Beautiful area, by the way!). Keeping those yards looking pristine aint always a walk in the park, is it? Its not just mowing and blowing, though some folks might think so. Its about understanding the specific needs of this environment.
First off, soil health is, like, super important. Indian Hills, with its varied terrain, probably dont have uniform soil types across every property. Getting a soil test? Yeah, thats not optional, its essential! Knowing what nutrients are lacking helps you choose the right fertilizers. Dont just go throwing down any old thing.
Then theres water conservation! We cant be wasting precious water, can we? Smart irrigation systems, drought-tolerant plants... these are your friends. Think about using mulch, too, helps retain moisture and suppresses weeds. Plus, it looks nice.
And speaking of weeds, integrated pest management is key. You dont always need harsh chemicals. Spot treat, encourage beneficial insects, and keep an eye out for problems before they get outta hand. Healthy plants are less susceptible to pests and diseases, thats just a fact.
Finally, dont neglect pruning! Proper pruning keeps shrubs and trees healthy and looking their best. Know which plants need to be pruned when, because, like, some plants only bloom on old wood, ya know? Ouch! Prune em at the wrong time and youll have no flowers next year!
Its a craft, this landscape thing. Keep learning, keep experimenting, and always put the health of the environment first. It aint easy, but seeing a yard thrive under your care? Thats a pretty great feeling.
The first known people to live in the area were ancient and PlainsWoodland peoples. Utes, Arapaho, and Cheyenne were in the area by the 1800s. They were all hunter-gatherers who established seasonal camps to acquire food.[8] A nearby rock shelter, Franktown Cave, shows evidence of habitation beginning in the early Archaic period about 6400 BC and continuing through each of the intervening cultural periods to 1725 AD.[9]
Stage roads were established on historic Cherokee and Trapper's Trails through present-day Denver. In 1864, Alfred Butters established the Pine Grove Way Station in a small one-room building (south of the current Parker United Methodist Church) to sell provisions, handle mail and messages, and provide respite for travelers.[8][10] The area was then within the Territory of Colorado (1861–1876). Butters became a state senator and representative. His house is on the National Register of Historic Places listings in downtown Denver.[10] George Long and his wife purchased the building, moved it to its present location on Main Street, and expanded it to include ten rooms, a ball room and outbuildings.[8] Built at the junction of stage routes, it was called Twenty Mile House for its distance to Denver. The stage station offered provisions, meals, and lodging, as well as protection for early settlers against attacks by Native Americans.[8][11]
Initially, there were peaceful interactions with Native Americans. Chiefs Washington and Colorow led their tribes along Sulphur Gulch, passing and sometimes visiting cabins of early settlers, like John and Elizabeth Tallman. During one visit, Chief Washington offered up to 20 ponies in trade for their red-headed son. They occasionally heard the sounds of celebration and mourning from nearby encampments.[10] Tension between settlers and Native Americans began to build in the 1860s due to broken treaties, aggression, and cultural misunderstanding. People became especially fearful following the Hungate massacre of 1864 in present-day Elbert County, which may have been started by Nathan Hungate shooting a Native American who stole his horse. It may have been a precipitating factor in the Sand Creek massacre led by General John Chivington later that year. John Tallman was one of the first to arrive at the scene of the Hungate Massacre and he served under Chivington during the Sand Creek massacre. The citizens of Parker became quite concerned and closed the school for a brief time after the massacres. In 1870, Jonathan Tallman (John's brother) was killed by Native Americans while out riding his mule.[10]
Twenty Mile House, Parker, Colorado, 1908
In 1869, Twenty Mile House was owned by Nelson and Susan Doud.[8][11] In 1870, the Douds purchased the Seventeen Mile House in what is now Centennial and sold the Twenty Mile House[12] to James S. Parker, an American Civil War veteran from Illinois who came to Colorado in 1865.[8][13] He added a blacksmith shop and mercantile store. In December 1870,[8] or 1873, a post office was established for the Pine Grove settlement; James Parker was the postmaster.[14] He built a schoolhouse and provided lodging and the first year's salary for the teacher.[8] George Parker, James' brother, homesteaded and built a saloon on land east of Parker Road.[8] George owned most of the land that ultimately became the town of Parker. He encouraged settlers and business development by "parceling out his spread" to newcomers.[8][10]
The name of the settlement was changed to Parker in 1882.[14][15] It was first called Parkers' for the two brothers and largest landowners, but the apostrophe was later dropped.[10] That year, the Denver and New Orleans Railroad completed the initial railroad route[16] that provided service between Denver, Parker, and Colorado Springs. To ensure that the railroad came through the center of town, rather than along Cherry Creek, James Parker sold his right-of-way for $1 and his brother George sold his right-of-way to bring the railroad into the center of town to Parker station.[17]
Rhode Island Hotel, 1908. Built near the railroad depot, the hotel had modern conveniences, a livery stable, a telephone company for the town, and a telegraph office. Over the years, it has been used for multiple purposes. It is now contained within the 20 Mile Center on Mainstreet. The outline of the old hotel can be seen from the rear of the building.[18]
James donated three acres for Parker Cemetery around 1884, at which time it held the graves of his two sons. It holds the graves of early settlers, the earliest known death was in 1870. Parker (died 1910) and his wife Mattie (died 1887) are also buried there.[8] In the mid-1880s, gold was found at Newlin Gulch (site of the current Rueter–Hess Reservoir.) More businesses were added, including a dry goods store, two more general mercantile stores, another blacksmith shop, a livery stable, barber shop, creamery, stockyard, hotel, church, and a brickworks. Many of these were added by 1900.[8][10]Victorian architectural style houses were built along Pikes Peak Drive in the 1910s.[19] The Parker station of the Colorado and Southern Railway, which was renamed as it expanded its route, closed in 1931.[17]
At least through the 1930s, there were dances the first Saturday of each month at Pikes Peak Grange, located north of Franktown. The dances were attended by teenagers from Parker and Elizabeth.[20]
The Parker City Land Company began development of a "modern western town" in the 1960s, but they did not complete the housing projects due to financial short-falls. In the 1970s, first african-american astronaut candidate Ed Dwight was involved in the project as a real estate developer.[21] The developer skipped town in 1971. About 1980 or 1981, the development was completed by another builder. Dean Salibury advocated for Parker's incorporation to protect its landowners.[20] The town was incorporated in 1981,[22] and Salisbury was Parker's first mayor.[20] Parker grew exponentially in the mid-1990s and mid-2000s, during the growth of Denver's southern suburbs.[22] In 1981 there were 285 people in Parker and by 2014 48,000 people resided in the town.[19]
The Twenty Mile post office, originally the Pine Grove post office building, was restored by the Parker Area Historical Society. It is located on Mainstreet, just west of Parker Road.[23]Ruth Memorial Methodist Episcopal Church is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[24] The town of Parker was given a grant by the History Colorado State Historical Fund a restoration project for the Parker Consolidated School at the Mainstreet Center.[25] The Hood House, one of two houses that did not sustain any damage during the flood of Tallman Gulch in 1912, is located in Preservation Park.[26] Some of the other historic sites include Tallman–Newlin Cabin and Parker Cemetery.[19]
Parker is located in northeastern Douglas County.[27] Its northernmost border follows the Arapahoe County line, and the city of Aurora touches the town's northeast border. The center of Parker is 23 miles (37 km) southeast of downtown Denver.[28]Castle Rock, the Douglas County seat, is 15 miles (24 km) to the southwest. Unincorporated communities that border Parker are Dove Valley to the northwest, Stonegate to the west, and The Pinery to the south.[29] Parker sits at an elevation of 5,900 feet above sea level.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 22.455 square miles (58.158 km2), of which 0.00 square miles (0.008 km2), or 0.02%, is water.[1]Cherry Creek flows through Parker on its way north toward Denver.[30]
This climate type is usually found in the outskirts of true deserts in low-latitude, semi-arid regions. It has cooler, wetter weather resulting from the higher latitude and mid-latitude frontal cyclone activity. Annual precipitation totals are greater than in tropical and subtropical desert climates. Yearly variations in amount are not as extreme as in the true deserts but are nevertheless large. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "BSk". (mid latitude Steppe Climate).
As of the American Community Survey of 2022, there were 61,222 people, 20,083 households, and 6,525 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,619.7 inhabitants per square mile (1,011.5/km2). There were housing units at an average density of 897.8 per square mile (346.6/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 84.4% White, 4.9% Asian, 0.4% Native American, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 1.88% from other races, 1.01% Black, and 6.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12.1% of the population.
There were 20,083 households, out of which 45.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.1% were married couples living together, 18.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.7% were non-families. 18.2% of all households were made up of people living alone, and 4.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.85 and the average family size was 3.28.
In the town, the age of the population is trending older, with 28.3% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 25.1% from 45 to 64, and 9.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.2 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $120,075, and the median income for a family was $136,520. Males had a median income of $93,090 versus $63,008 for females. The per capita income for the town was $48,857. About 1.8% of families and 3.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.9% of those under age 18 and 1.3% of those age 65 or over.
As of the 2000 census, there were 23,558 people, 7,929 households, and 6,525 families residing in the town. The population density was 1,615.2 people per square mile (623.4/km²). There were 8,352 housing units at an average density of 572.6 per square mile (221.0/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 92.60% White, 1.71% Asian, 1.01% African American, 0.45% Native American, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 1.88% from other races, and 2.33% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.80% of the population.
There were 7,929 households out of which 52.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 71.8% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.7% were non-families. 13.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 1.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.96 and the average family size was 3.27.
In the town the population was spread out with 34.0% under the age of 18, 4.9% from 18 to 24, 43.4% from 25 to 44, 15.0% from 45 to 64, and 2.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 98.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.3 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $74,116, and the median income for a family was $77,384. Males had a median income of $52,070 versus $35,700 for females. The per capita income for the town was $27,479. About 1.7% of families and 2.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.2% of those under age 18 and 2.1% of those age 65 or over.
Parker is served by Douglas County School District. Douglas County School District has among the highest level of students in Colorado. Students have scored, on average, 12 to 19 percent above the state average.[33] The district was rated 9th in the state in 2009.[34] The Pine Lane Elementary School had the largest student enrollment in Parker until Mammoth Heights Elementary opened in January 2007 and took the overload.
Two of the three principal high schools in the area, Ponderosa and Chaparral High School, have a cross-town rivalry and compete annually for The Pride of Parker trophy. Legend High School opened in 2008, as Douglas County's ninth high school.
Private schools in Parker include:
Ave Maria Catholic School (PK-8)
Southeast Christian School (PK-8)
Lutheran High School Parker (9–12)
Parker Montessori Educational Institute (PK-K)
Montessori Academy (PK-K)
For other Parker and Douglas County school information:
Challenge to Excellence Charter School (annual lottery)
North Star Academy (annual lottery)
Parker Core Knowledge Charter School (students selected through a wait list; application at birth strongly recommended in order to gain entry for kindergarten)
The Town maintains 10 trails with over 27 miles of concrete paved, multi-use trails, over 6 miles of natural surface equestrian trails and a 1.8-mile natural surface, multi-use loop trail. The Cherry Creek Trail runs along Cherry Creek, north and south through Parker. Bicycling, hiking, nature walks, and cross-country skiing are all popular uses.
The Rueter–Hess Reservoir is located west of town and is not yet open for recreational use of the water as of 2021, although trails around the reservoir are open. Planned activities there include fishing, hiking, and non-motorized boating.[36] No natural streams flow into the reservoir, instead, water rights owned by the Parker Water and Sanitation District provide water delivered via Cherry Creek and local canals. If filled to capacity, the surface size would be 1,140 acres.
The Parker Recreation Center is located alongside Lincoln Avenue and has several amenities such as gyms, swimming pools, fitness and cycling studios, sports and fitness classes, and more.
The Parker Field House offers 100,000 square feet (9,300 m2) of space, including sports turf, batting cages, gymnasiums, inline rink with Sport Court flooring, and climbing.
The Parker Racquet Club opened in 2019 and offers six indoor courts to tennis and pickleball enthusiasts. Phase 2, opening in 2023, adds one of the first paddle courts in Colorado, and additional outdoor tennis courts and pickleball courts.
The town currently maintains about 250 acres of developed parkland and more than 900 acres of open space.[37]
Parker is home to the Parker Arts, Culture, & Events Center (PACE). It is a venue that hosts art exhibits, art classes, theater productions, and concerts. It is the official home of the Parker Symphony Orchestra, a community orchestra established in 1994, that offers a full season of orchestra concerts annually. The Parker Symphony was formerly the South Suburban Community Orchestra.
Parker is also home to Colorado School of Dance, which partners with PACE each December to produce the "Nutcracker of Parker." The annual ballet has been a Parker tradition since 2003.
Parker currently has one local magazine and one local paper. Search Parker Magazine is the local magazine and the Parker Chronicle is the local paper. Parker also receives the county-wide channel, Douglas County 8, which broadcasts school sports events and assorted programs run by residents.[38]
McLaughlin, Frank B. (1998). A Guidebook to Historic Sites in the Parker Area: What They Look Like, what They Looked Like, how to Find Them, Their History. Parker Area Historical Society.
Miller, Ruth L. (2005). Parker, Colorado: An Historical Narrative. Parker Area Historical Society.
Whelchel, Sandy (1996). A Folk History of Parker and Hilltop. Parker Distributing/Paintbrush Press. ISBN978-1-878406-08-8.
Whiteley, Lee (1999). The Cherokee Trail: Bent's Old Fort to Fort Bridger. Johnson Printing. ISBN978-0-9671351-1-3.
The urban and suburban development of the community known as Lakewood was started in 1889 by Charles Welch and W.A.H. Loveland, who platted a 13-block area along Colfax Avenue west of Denver in eastern Jefferson County. Loveland, the former president of the Colorado Central Railroad, retired to the new community of Lakewood after many years of living in Golden.[citation needed]
Until 1969, Lakewood had no municipal government, relying instead on several water districts, several fire districts, several volunteer-staffed fire districts, and the government of Jefferson County, including the Jefferson County Sheriff. Additionally, some neighborhoods lacked street lights and sidewalks.[citation needed]
The City of Lakewood was incorporated in 1969 as Jefferson City. Soon after, an election was held and the city's name was changed to Lakewood, due to an overwhelming dislike of "Jefferson City" and the belief that it would be confused with existing communities in Colorado and Missouri.[10] At the time of incorporation, the city population was already over 90,000.[citation needed]
Lakewood never had a traditional downtown area.[11] West Colfax Avenue served the metropolitan area as U.S. Route 40 and the main route joining Denver with the Rocky Mountains. [citation needed] As such, Colfax from Harlan west to Kipling and beyond had mostly commercial establishments. In addition to the Jewish Consumptives' Relief Society (JCRS) for tuberculosis patients, the small, frame Methodist Church, and telephone exchange, by the 1950s grocery and drug stores, gas stations, restaurants and taverns, several motels, branch banks, a movie theater, a roller rink, a bowling alley, and used car lots emerged there. Several multiple-business "shopping centers" developed followed by much larger centers at JCRS and Westland. The Villa Italia Mall on West Alameda Avenue, 20 blocks south of Colfax, reflected the southward expansion of the Lakewood settlement and housed a larger concentration of retail space. As the mall went into decline, the Lakewood City Council developed a plan to demolish the Villa Italia Mall and replace it with a new development called Belmar.[12]
In 2011, Lakewood was named an All-America City for the first time.
On December 27, 2021, a Denver gunman killed three Denver residents and two Lakewood residents before being killed by seriously wounded Lakewood Police Agent Ashley Ferris.[13]
Lakewood is located at the junction of U.S. Route 6 and Colorado State Highway 121 in central Colorado, the city lies immediately west of Denver and 62 miles (100 km) north-northwest of Colorado Springs.[14][15]
The city is located in the watershed of the South Platte River, and several small tributaries of the river flow generally east through it. From north to south, these include Lakewood Gulch, Weir Gulch, Sanderson Gulch, and Bear Creek. Two tributaries of Lakewood Gulch, Dry Gulch, and McIntyre Gulch flow east through the northern part of the city. Turkey Creek, a tributary of Bear Creek, flows northeast through the far southwestern part of the city. In addition, Lena Gulch, a tributary of Clear Creek to the north, flows east then north through the extreme northwestern part of the city.[14]
Several small lakes and reservoirs are in Lakewood. The Soda Lakes lie in the extreme southwestern part of the city. East of them lies Bear Creek Lake, a reservoir fed by Bear Creek and Turkey Creek. Clustered near each other in central Lakewood are Main Reservoir, East Reservoir, Smith Reservoir, Kendrick Lake, and Cottonwood Lake. Northeast of them lies Kountze Lake. In the northwestern part of the city, Lena Gulch both feeds and drains Maple Grove Reservoir. In the extreme southern part of the city lies Bowles Reservoir No. 1 and, just outside the city limits to the reservoir's northeast, Marston Lake.[14]
At the 2020 United States Census, the town had a total area of 28,574 acres (115.635 km2), including 751 acres (3.040 km2) of water.[6]
Lakewood, Colorado – Racial and ethnic composition Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.
As of the 2010 census, 142,980 people, 61,986 households, and 35,882 families were residing in the city. The population density was 3,334.4 inhabitants per square mile (1,287.4/km2). Its 65,758 housing units averaged 1,533.5 per square mile (591.9/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 82.9% White, 3.1% Asian, 1.6% Black, 1.4% American Indian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 7.7% from other races, and 3.3% from two or more races. Hispanics and Latinos of any race were 22.0% of the population.[24]
Of the 61,986 households, 26.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.1% were married couples living together, 5.0% had a male householder with no wife present, 11.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.1% were not families. About 33.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27, and the average family size was 2.92.[24]
The distribution of the population by age was 20.8% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 27.1% from 25 to 44, 28.0% from 45 to 64, and 14.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39.2 years. The gender makeup of the city was 48.9% male and 51.1% female.[24]
The median income for a household in the city was $52,960, and for a family was $66,947. Males had a median income of $46,907 versus $41,476 for females. The city's per capita income was $30,027. About 9.1% of families and 11.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.3% of those under age 18 and 6.1% of those age 65 or over.[24]
As of 2013, 67.3% of the population over the age of 16 was in the labor force. 0.1% were in the armed forces, and 67.3% were in the civilian labor force with 61.1% employed and 6.2% unemployed. The occupational composition of the employed civilian labor force was 38.6% in management, business, science, and arts; 25.9% in sales and office occupations; 16.9% in service occupations; 9.9% in production, transportation, and material moving; and 8.7% in natural resources, construction, and maintenance. The three industries employing the largest percentages of the working civilian labor force were educational services, health care, and social assistance (18.4%); professional, scientific, and management, and administrative and waste management services (13.8%); and retail trade (11.9%).[24]
The cost of living index in Lakewood, compared to a U.S. average of 100, is 107.4.[25] As of 2013, the median home value in the city was $238,500, the median selected monthly owner cost was $1,546 for housing units with a mortgage and $442 for those without, and the median gross rent was $940.[24]
Lakewood maintains a council-manager form of government. Citizens elect a city council consisting of the mayor, who is elected at-large, and 10 city council members, 2 from each of the city's five geographical wards. The mayor and the council members assert the policies for the operation of the city government. The current City Manager, Kathleen Hodgson, is the longest-tenured City Manager in the State of Colorado.[citation needed]
The current mayor is Wendi Strom. The council members representing Ward 1 are Jeslin Shahrezaei and Glenda Sinks; Sophia Mayott-Guerrero and Isabel Cruz represent Ward 2; Roger Low and Rebekah Stewart represent Ward 3; Rich Olver and David Rein represent Ward 4; and Ward 5 is represented by Jacob LaBure and Paula Nystrom.
Bus and light rail service within the city, and to other areas in the metropolitan area, is provided by the Regional Transportation District. Light rail service to Lakewood began on April 26, 2013, with the opening of the W Line. Seven light rail stations are located within the city, all of which are located along the W Line.
Intercity transportation is provided by Bustang. Federal Center station in Lakewood is along Bustang's West Line, which connects Denver to Grand Junction.[37]
Heritage Lakewood Belmar Park is a 20th-century museum and festival grounds, with several historic buildings, and is located near Kountze Lake; the site formerly housed the Belmar family mansion.
At William Fredrick Hayden Park in the foothills of Green Mountain, the Colorado National Guard previously used the north side for artillery practice. Since 2012 the Department of Defense Military Munitions Response Program has financed investigations to identify unexploded ordnance there.[38]
The 40 West Arts District includes a bike and "walking art experience" along the light rail line.[39]
Gold discovered in the South Platte River Valley in 1858 brought national attention to the area that would become Westminster, Colorado. The promise of fortune and The Homestead Act of 1862 encouraged many pioneers from the east to settle in Colorado rather than continue on to California.[6] Before the settlements came, wildlife like antelope and buffalo made their homes in the area. There is also evidence of Arapaho Indians near the Crown Point (Gregory Hill) area.[7] Westminsters' first permanent settler was Kentucky farmer Pleasant DeSpain, who built his home in 1870 on 160 acres (near what is now West 76th Avenue and Lowell Street).[8] The area became known as DeSpain Junction and attracted other settlers including Edward Bruce Bowles, who in 1881 constructed a brick Italianate house now known as the Bowles House. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988. The village of DeSpain Junction grew into a small farming community and continued to attract new settlers despite the difficulty of farming in Colorado's arid climate.[6] Connecticut real estate developer C.J. Harris arrived in DeSpain Junction in 1885 and purchased the DeSpain farm, among others. Harris combined the separate homesteads and divided it into smaller tracts of land, which he sold to fruit farmers. Harris renamed DeSpain Junction with his own name and the area was referred to as Harris, Colorado.[6] In 1890, New Yorker Henry T. Mayham convinced the Denver Presbytery to build a university on land that he owned in Harris. After delays caused by the depression of 1893, the school was built from red sandstone quarried in Colorado's Red Rocks region. The curriculum was patterned after Princeton University and was referred to as the "Princeton of the West". The school was incorporated as Westminster University of Colorado, and classes began in 1908 with one year's tuition costing $50 ($1,411 in 2018).[9] The school ceased operating in 1917, when all students in attendance left to fight in World War I.[10] In the following decade it operated as a church and school. In 1911, Harris voted to incorporate as a city and changed its name to Westminster, in honor of the university which is now on the National Register of Historic Places.
In July 2006, it was ranked as the 24th best place to live in the US by Money magazine.[11]
Westminster City Hall features a 14-story bell tower topped by a pyramid shaped steel mesh structure. The 130-foot spire, which is widely known and referenced as a community landmark, was first conceptualized as a symbolic tie and tribute to the clock tower of Westminster Palace in England known as Big Ben.[12] The unveiling of the Bell Tower in 1986 was attended by the then mayor of Westminster, England. An English Oak can be seen on the City Hall property today- a gift to Westminster, Colorado, from Westminster, England.
Westminster, Colorado – Racial and ethnic composition Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.
As of the census[17] of 2000, there were 100,940 people, 38,343 households, and 26,034 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,203.9 inhabitants per square mile (1,237.0/km2). There were 39,318 housing units at an average density of 1,248.0 units per square mile (481.9 units/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 84.19% White, 1.23% African American, 0.74% Native American, 5.48% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 5.52% from other races, and 2.76% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 15.23% of the population.
There were 38,343 households, out of which 35.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.6% were married couples living together, 9.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.1% were non-families. 23.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.62 and the average family size was 3.15.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.9% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 36.0% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 6.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.9 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $56,323, and the median income for a family was $63,776. Males had a median income of $41,539 versus $31,568 for females. The per capita income for the city was $25,482. About 3.1% of families and 4.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.1% of those under age 18 and 6.3% of those age 65 or over.
The Denver Regional Transportation District (RTD) provides bus service to Westminster connecting it to Boulder and Denver via Flatiron Flyer, a bus rapid transit service that travels in the US 36 express lanes.[18]
The Westminster Center park-n-Ride operated by the RTD is located on both sides of U.S. 36 and is immediately across Sheridan Boulevard from the site. Approximately 1,546 people per weekday board at this facility, with approximately 498 buses per day serving this park-n-Ride.[19]
RTD opened the B Line to the public in 2016 which brings commuter rail service between downtown Denver and Westminster Station. The 6 miles of commuter rail transports riders from the historic center of Westminster to the dynamic Union Station Transit Center where they can connect to the C/D, E, and W light rail lines, the A Line to Denver International Airport, as well as Local and Regional buses, and the FreeMallRide and FreeMetroRide downtown shuttles.[20]
Westminsters' top employers represent leading companies in high-tech, medical, energy, and other expanding fields. In 2019 the top ten primary employers in Westminster, ranked by number of employees included:
Westminster has an extensive trail network and open space system. The highlight of the trail system is the Big Dry Creek Trail which extends approximately 12 miles (19 km) from the eastern boundary of the city to Standley Lake. Other trails parallel the Farmers' High Line Canal, Walnut Creek, and Little Dry Creek.
Westminster began preserving open spaces in 1985 when voters first approved a sales tax specifically earmarked to acquire and maintain open space. The city now owns more than 3,000 acres in all parts of Westminster.[25] The city has preserved large expanses of land in the Standley Lake Regional ParkArchived February 28, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, and the Westminster Hills area, among others. Westminster City Park, City Park Recreation CenterArchived February 5, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, and many other neighborhood and community parks provide various recreation facilities.[26] Westminster has several golf courses, including Legacy Ridge Golf Course, The Heritage Golf Course at Westmoor, Walnut Creek Golf Course and the Hyland Hills golf course.
Downtown Westminster intersects directly with the new U.S. 36 Bikeway linking the largest trail system in the Front Range with over 145 miles.[27]
Westminster is home to The Orchard Town Center, an outdoor mall featuring over 90 speciality retailers, dining and entertainment located at the intersection of I-25 and 144th Avenue.
The city's major mall had previously been the Westminster Mall, demolished in 2012 to make way for the Downtown Westminster development.[28]
Downtown Westminster is a 105-acre site almost equidistant between downtown Denver and Boulder.[27] The new downtown will feature 18 acres of parks and public space. It integrates Smart City functionality to reduce consumption of water and energy and will have smart streetlights, parking garages, and meters.[28] Development began with the completion of over 300 housing units, including 118 affordable housing units.[29][30] Downtown Westminster features an Alamo Drafthouse Cinema and a 125-room boutique hotel, the Origin Hotel.
Downtown Westminster is planned to house 300 hotel rooms, 2,300 multi-family, condo and townhouse residential units, 2 million square feet of collaborative and class A office space, and 750,000 square feet of retail space.[27]
^"The Early Settlers". Historic Westminster, Colorado. City of Westminster. Archived from the original on November 15, 2012. Retrieved October 24, 2012.
Denver's downtown district lies about 12 miles (19 kilometers) east of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. Named after James W. Denver, the governor of the Kansas Territory at the time, Denver was founded at the confluence of Cherry Creek and the South Platte River in 1858 during the Gold Rush era. Nicknamed the "Mile High City" because its official elevation is exactly one mile (5280 feet or 1609.344 meters) above sea level, Denver grew beyond its prospecting origins to become the principal commercial and transportation hub for a broad region spanning the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain West.[a][25] The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the longitudinal reference for the Mountain Time Zone, passes directly through Denver Union Station.
The greater Denver area was inhabited by several Indigenous peoples such as Apaches, Utes, Cheyennes, Comanches, and Arapahoes.[26] By the terms of the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie between the United States and various tribes including the Cheyenne and Arapaho,[27] the United States unilaterally defined and recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho territory as ranging from the North Platte River in present-day Wyoming and Nebraska southward to the Arkansas River in present-day Colorado and Kansas. This definition specifically encompasses the land of modern Metropolitan Denver. But the discovery in November 1858 of gold in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado[28] (then part of the western Kansas Territory)[29] brought on a gold rush and a consequent flood of white immigration across Cheyenne and Arapaho lands.[28] Colorado territorial officials pressured federal authorities to redefine and reduce the extent of Indian treaty lands.[29]
On November 22, 1858,[contradictory]General William Larimer and Captain Jonathan Cox, both land speculators from eastern Kansas Territory, placed cottonwood logs to stake a claim on the bluff overlooking the confluence of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek, across the creek from the existing mining settlement of Auraria, and on the site of the existing townsite of St. Charles. Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver.[31] Larimer hoped the town's name would help it be selected as the county seat of Arapahoe County, but unbeknownst to him, Governor Denver had already resigned from office. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne and Arapaho. The site of these first towns is now occupied by Confluence Park near downtown Denver. Edward W. Wynkoop came to Colorado in 1859 and became one of the city's founders. Wynkoop Street in Denver is named after him.[32][33]
Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, with the intention of creating a major city that would cater to new immigrants. Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock, and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria.[31] In May 1859, Denver City residents donated 53 lots to the Leavenworth & Pike's Peak Express in order to secure the region's first overland wagon route. Offering daily service for "passengers, mail, freight, and gold", the Express reached Denver on a trail that trimmed westward travel time from twelve days to six. The Denver City, Kansas Territory, post office opened on February 11, 1860[34]
On February 18, 1861, six chiefs of the Southern Cheyenne and four of the Arapaho signed the Treaty of Fort Wise with the United States[35] at Bent's New Fort at Big Timbers near what is now Lamar, Colorado. They ceded more than 90 percent of the lands designated for them by the Fort Laramie Treaty, including the area of modern Denver.[29] Some Cheyennes opposed to the treaty, saying that it had been signed by a small minority of the chiefs without the consent or approval of the rest of the tribe, that the signatories had not understood what they signed, and that they had been bribed to sign by a large distribution of gifts. The territorial government of Colorado, however, claimed the treaty was a "solemn obligation" and considered that those Indians who refused to abide by it were hostile and planning a war.[36]
This disagreement on the validity of Treaty of Fort Wise escalated to bring about the Colorado War of 1864 and 1865, during which the brutal Sand Creek massacre against Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples occurred. The aftermath of the war was the dissolution of the reservation in Eastern Colorado, the signing of Medicine Lodge Treaty which stipulated that the Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples would be relocated outside of their traditional territory. This treaty term was achieved, even though the treaty was not legally ratified by the tribal members, as per the treaty's own terms. Thus, by the end of 1860s, this effectively and completely cleared the Denver area of its indigenous inhabitants.[29][40]
"Pioneer Mothers of Colorado" statue at The Denver Post building
Although by the close of the 1860s Denver residents could look with pride at their success establishing a vibrant supply and service center, the decision to route the nation's first transcontinental railroad through Cheyenne City, rather than Denver, threatened the prosperity of the young town. The transcontinental railroad passed a daunting 100 miles (160 kilometers) away, but citizens mobilized to build a railroad to connect Denver to it. Spearheaded by visionary leaders, including Territorial Governor John Evans, David Moffat, and Walter Cheesman, fundraising began. Within three days, $300,000 had been raised, and citizens were optimistic. Fundraising stalled before enough was raised, forcing these visionary leaders to take control of the debt-ridden railroad. Despite challenges, on June 24, 1870, citizens cheered as the Denver Pacific completed the link to the transcontinental railroad, ushering in a new age of prosperity for Denver.[41]
Finally linked to the rest of the nation by rail, Denver prospered as a service and supply center. The young city grew during these years, attracting millionaires with their mansions, as well as a mixture of crime and poverty of a rapidly growing city. Denver citizens were proud when the rich chose Denver and were thrilled when Horace Tabor, the Leadville mining millionaire, built a business block at 16th and Larimer, as well as the elegant Tabor Grand Opera House. Luxurious hotels, including the much-loved Brown Palace Hotel, soon followed, as well as splendid homes for millionaires, such as the Croke, Patterson, Campbell Mansion at 11th and Pennsylvania and the now-demolished Moffat Mansion at 8th and Grant.[42] Intent on transforming Denver into one of the world's great cities, leaders wooed industry and attracted laborers to work in these factories.
Soon, in addition to the elite and a large middle class, Denver had a growing population of immigrant German, Italian, and Chinese laborers, soon followed by African Americans from the Deep South and Hispanic workers. The influx of the new residents strained available housing. In addition, the Silver Crash of 1893 unsettled political, social, and economic balances. Competition among the different ethnic groups was often expressed as bigotry, and social tensions gave rise to the Red Scare. Americans were suspicious of immigrants, who were sometimes allied with socialist and labor union causes. After World War I, a revival of the Ku Klux Klan attracted white, native-born Americans who were anxious about the many changes in society. Unlike the earlier organization that was active in the rural South, KKK chapters developed in urban areas of the Midwest and West, including Denver, and into Idaho and Oregon. Corruption and crime also developed in Denver.[43]
Between 1880 and 1895, the city underwent a huge rise in corruption, as crime bosses, such as Soapy Smith, worked side by side with elected officials and the police to control elections, gambling, and bunco gangs.[44] The city also suffered a depression in 1893 after the crash of silver prices. In 1887, the precursor to the international charity United Way was formed in Denver by local religious leaders, who raised funds and coordinated various charities to help Denver's poor.[45] By 1890, Denver had grown to be the second-largest city west of Omaha, Nebraska.[46] In 1900, whites represented 96.8% of Denver's population.[47] The African American and Hispanic populations increased with migrations of the 20th century. Many African Americans first came as workers on the railroad, which had a terminus in Denver, and began to settle there.
Between the 1880s and 1930s, Denver's floriculture industry developed and thrived.[48][49] This period became known locally as the Carnation Gold Rush.[50]
A bill proposing a state constitutional amendment to allow home rule for Denver and other municipalities was introduced in the legislature in 1901 and passed. The measure called for a statewide referendum, which voters approved in 1902. On December 1 that year, Governor James Orman proclaimed the amendment part of the state's fundamental law. The City and County of Denver came into being on that date and was separated from Arapahoe and Adams counties.[8][9][51]
From 1953 to 1989, the Rocky Flats Plant, a DOE nuclear weapon facility that was about 15 miles from Denver, produced fissileplutonium "pits" for nuclear warheads. A major fire at the facility in 1957, as well as leakage from nuclear waste stored at the site between 1958 and 1968, resulted in the contamination of some parts of Denver, to varying degrees, with plutonium-239, a harmful radioactive substance with a half-life of 24,200 years.[52] A 1981 study by the Jefferson County health director, Carl Johnson, linked the contamination to an increase in birth defects and cancer incidence in central Denver and nearer Rocky Flats. Later studies confirmed many of his findings.[53][54] Plutonium contamination was still present outside the former plant site as of August 2010[update].[55] It presents risks to building the envisioned Jefferson Parkway,[56] which would complete Denver's automotive beltway.
Downtown Denver cityscape, 1964. Includes Denver's oldest church (Trinity United Methodist), first building of the Mile High Center complex, Lincoln Center, old brownstone part of the Brown Palace Hotel, and Cosmopolitan Hotel – since demolished.
In 1970, Denver was selected to host the 1976 Winter Olympics to coincide with Colorado's centennial celebration, but in November 1972, Colorado voters struck down ballot initiatives allocating public funds to pay for the high costs of the games. They were moved to Innsbruck, Austria.[57] The notoriety of being the only city ever to decline to host an Olympiad after being selected has made subsequent bids difficult. The movement against hosting the games was based largely on environmental issues and was led by State Representative Richard Lamm. He was subsequently elected to three terms (1975–87) as Colorado governor.[58] Denver explored a potential bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics,[59] but no bid was submitted.[60]
In 2010, Denver adopted a comprehensive update of its zoning code,[61] which was developed to guide development as envisioned in adopted plans such as Blueprint Denver,[62] Transit Oriented Development Strategic Plan, Greenprint Denver, and the Strategic Transportation Plan.
Denver has hosted the Democratic National Convention twice, in 1908 and 2008. It promoted the city on the national, political, and socioeconomic stage.[63] On August 10–15, 1993, Denver hosted the Catholic Church's 6th World Youth Day, which was attended by an estimated 500,000, making it the largest gathering in Colorado history.
In 2015, a new commuter railway system commenced operations in the Denver metropolitan area with a network operation of 25 kV 60 Hz.
Denver has been known historically as the Queen City of the Plains and the Queen City of the West, because of its important role in the agricultural industry of the High Plains region in eastern Colorado and along the foothills of the Colorado Front Range.
Central Downtown DenverDenver and nearby mountains as seen from the rooftops of the Cherry Creek neighborhood
Denver is in the center of the Front Range Urban Corridor, between the Rocky Mountains to the west and the High Plains to the east. Its topography consists of plains in the city center with hilly areas to the north, west, and south. It is the only state capital in the United States that is a consolidated city-county. At the 2020 United States census, the City and County of Denver had an area of 99,025 acres (400.739 km2), including 1,057 acres (4.276 km2) of water.[12] The City and County of Denver is surrounded by three other counties: Adams County to the north and east, Arapahoe County to the south and east, and Jefferson County to the west.
Denver's nickname is the "Mile-High City", as its official elevation is one mile (5,280 ft; 1,609 m) above sea level, defined by the elevation of the spot of a benchmark on the steps of the State Capitol building. The elevation of the entire city ranges from 5,130 to 5,690 feet (1,560 to 1,730 m).
The City and County of Denver has 78 official neighborhoods used for planning and administration.[64] The system of neighborhood boundaries and names dates to 1970 when city planners divided the city into 73 groups of one to four census tracts, called "statistical neighborhoods," most of which are unchanged since then.[65]
Unlike some other cities, such as Chicago, Denver does not have official larger area designations. Colloquially, names such as Northside and Westside are still in use, but not well-known.[66][67] Community planners have recently been using a set of 19 larger areas, all of which are groups of statistical neighborhoods, as part of the Area Planning process.[68]
Construction along Cherokee Street in the Golden Triangle neighborhood
Denver also has a number of colloquial neighborhood names and boundaries reflecting how people in an area, or others such as community groups and real estate developers, have defined areas. Well-known non-administrative neighborhoods include the historic and trendy LoDo (short for "Lower Downtown"), part of the city's Union Station neighborhood; Uptown, straddling North Capitol Hill and City Park West; Curtis Park and RiNo ("River North"), both part of the Five Points neighborhood; Alamo Placita, the northern part of the Speer neighborhood; Park Hill, a successful example of intentional racial integration;[69] and Golden Triangle, in the Civic Center.
One of Denver's newer neighborhoods was built on the site of Stapleton International Airport, named after former Denver mayor Benjamin F. Stapleton, a member of the Ku Klux Klan.[70] In 2020, the neighborhood's community association voted to change the name from Stapleton to Central Park[71] (see more in Politics section below). The Central Park neighborhood itself has 12 "neighborhoods" within its boundaries.[72]
Adjacent counties, municipalities and census-designated places
Denver features a cool semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSk, Trewartha: BSao) with generally low humidity and around 3,100 hours of sunshine per year, although humid microclimates can be found nearby depending on exact location.[73][74] These humid microclimates have the temperature of a hot-summer humid continental climate (Koppen: Dfa) or a humid subtropical climate (Koppen: Cfa) when using the −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm. It has four distinct seasons and receives most of its precipitation from April through August. Due to its inland location on the High Plains, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, the region can be subject to sudden changes in weather.[75]
July is the warmest month, with an average high temperature of 89.9 °F (32.2 °C).[76] Summers range from warm to hot with occasional, sometimes severe, afternoon thunderstorms and high temperatures reaching 90 °F (32 °C) on 38 days annually, and occasionally 100 °F (38 °C). December, the coldest month of the year, has an average daily high temperature of 44 °F (6.7 °C). Winters consist of periods of snow and very low temperatures alternating with periods of milder weather due to the warming effect of Chinook winds. In winter, daytime highs occasionally exceed 60 °F (16 °C), but they also often fail to reach 32 °F (0 °C) during periods of cold weather. Occasionally, daytime highs can even fail to rise above 0 °F (−18 °C) due to arctic air masses.[77] On the coldest nights of the year, lows can fall to −10 °F (−23 °C) or below, with the city experiencing a low of −24 °F (−31 °C) on December 22, 2022, with a wind chill of −40 °F (−40 °C).[78] Snowfall is common throughout the late fall, winter and early spring, averaging 53.5 inches (136 cm) for 1981–2010;[79] but in the 2021 winter season, Denver began the month of December without any snowfall for the first time in history.[80] The average window for measurable (≥0.1 in or 0.25 cm) snow is October 17 through April 27; however, measurable snowfall has occurred as early as September 4 and as late as June 3.[81] Extremes in temperature range from −29 °F (−34 °C) on January 9, 1875, up to 105 °F (41 °C) as recently as June 28, 2018.[82] Due to the city's high elevation and aridity, diurnal temperature variation is large throughout the year.
Tornadoes are rare west of the I-25 corridor; one notable exception was an F3 tornado that struck 4.4 miles (7.1 km) south of downtown on June 15, 1988. On the other hand, the suburbs east of Denver and the city's east-northeastern extension (Denver International Airport) can see a few tornadoes, often weak landspout tornadoes, each spring and summer, especially during June, with the enhancement of the Denver Convergence Vorticity Zone (DCVZ). The DCVZ, also known as the Denver Cyclone, is a variable vortex of storm-forming air flow usually found north and east of downtown, and which often includes the airport.[83][84] Heavy weather from the DCVZ can disrupt airport operations.[85][86] In a study looking at hail events in areas with a population of at least 50,000, Denver was found to be ranked 10th most prone to hail storms in the continental United States.[87] In fact, Denver has had three of the top 10 costliest hailstorms in U.S. history, on July 11, 1990; July 20, 2009; and May 8, 2017.
Denver's official weather station is at Denver International Airport, roughly 20 miles (32 km) from downtown. A 2019 analysis showed the average temperature at Denver International Airport, 50.2 °F (10 °C), was significantly cooler than downtown, 53.0 °F (12 °C). Many of the suburbs also have warmer temperatures and there is controversy regarding the location of the official temperature readings.[89]
View of downtown Denver after a snowstorm in March 2016, looking northwest from Cheesman Park
According to the 2020 census, the City and County of Denver contained 715,522 people and 301,501 households. The population density was 3,922.6 inhabitants per square mile (1,514.5 inhabitants/km2) including the airport. There were 338.341 housing units at an average density of 1,751 units per square mile (676 units/km2).[99] However, the average density throughout most Denver neighborhoods tends to be higher. Without the 80249 zip code (47.3 sq mi, 8,407 residents) near the airport, the average density increases to around 5,470 per square mile.
Map of racial distribution in Denver, 2010 U.S. Census. Each dot is 25 people: White, Black, Asian, Hispanic, or Other (yellow)
Denver, Colorado – Racial and ethnic composition Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.
Approximately 70.3% of the population (over five years old) spoke only English at home. An additional 23.5% of the population spoke Spanish at home. In terms of ancestry, 31.8% were Hispanic or Latino, 14.6% of the population were of German ancestry, 9.7% were of Irish ancestry, 8.9% were of English ancestry, and 4.0% were of Italian ancestry.
There were 250,906 households, of which 23.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.7% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.1% were non-families. 39.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27, and the average family size was 3.14.
Age distribution was 22.0% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 36.1% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. Overall there were 102.1 males for every 100 females. Due to a skewed sex ratio wherein single men outnumber single women, some protologists had nicknamed the city as Menver.[107]
The median household income was $45,438, and the median family income was $48,195. Males had a median income of $36,232 versus $33,768 for females. The per capita income for the city was $24,101. 19.1% of the population and 14.6% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 25.3% of those under the age of 18 and 13.7% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.[108]
Denver has one of the largest populations of Mexican-Americans in the entire United States. Approximately one third of the city is Hispanic, with the overwhelming majority of them being of Mexican descent. Many of them speak Spanish at home.
English, German, Irish, Swedish, Italian, Polish, Chinese, Japanese, Greek, and Russian immigrants immigrated to Denver by the 1920s.[109]
As of 2010[update], 72.28% (386,815) of Denver residents aged five and older spoke only English at home, while 21.42% (114,635) spoke Spanish, 0.85% (4,550) Vietnamese, 0.57% (3,073) African languages, 0.53% (2,845) Russian, 0.50% (2,681) Chinese, 0.47% (2,527) French, and 0.46% (2,465) German. In total, 27.72% (148,335) of Denver's population aged five and older spoke a language other than English.[110]
Panorama of downtown Denver, c. July 2006, looking east along Speer Blvd
The 17th street district includes many financial, business and corporate buildings.[112]The United States Mint in Denver (2010)Republic Plaza, Colorado's tallest buildingWells Fargo "Cash Register" building1144 15th St: One of Denver's newest skyscrapers
The Denver MSA had a gross metropolitan product of $311.9 billion in 2023, making it the 18th largest metro economy in the United States.[113] Additionally, the 12-County Denver–Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had a GDP of $377.7 billion in 2023 while the broader Front Range had a GDP of $474.6 billion.[114] Denver's economy is based partially on its geographic position and its connection to some of the country's major transportation systems. Because Denver is the largest city within 500 miles (800 km), it has become a natural location for storage and distribution of goods and services to the Mountain States, Southwest states, as well as all western states. Another benefit for distribution is that Denver is nearly equidistant from large cities of the Midwest, such as Chicago and St. Louis and some large cities of the West Coast, such as Los Angeles and San Francisco.
Over the years, the city has been home to other large corporations in the central United States, making Denver a key trade point for the country. Several well-known companies originated in or have relocated to Denver. William Ainsworth opened the Denver Instrument Company in 1895 to make analytical balances for gold assayers. Its factory is now in Arvada. Aimco is headquartered in Denver. Samsonite began in Denver in 1910 as Shwayder Trunk Manufacturing Company, but Samsonite closed its NE Denver factory in 2001, and moved its headquarters to Massachusetts after a change of ownership in 2006. Qwest Corporation, founded in Denver in 1911 as Mountain States Telephone & Telegraph Company, is now a part of Lumen Technologies (previously CenturyLink).
On October 31, 1937, Continental Airlines, now United Airlines, moved its headquarters to Stapleton Airport in Denver, Colorado (before United Airlines later moved to its current home in Chicago). Robert F. Six arranged to have the headquarters moved to Denver from El Paso, Texas because Six believed that the airline should have its headquarters in a large city with a potential base of customers. Continental later moved to Houston from Denver, but merged with United Airlines in 2013. Throughout that time, the company held a large employee base in the Denver area, which is home to the United Airlines Flight Training Center in the Central Park neighborhood. MediaNews Group purchased the Denver Post in 1987; the company is based in Denver. The Gates Corporation, the world's largest producer of automotive belts and hoses, was established in S. Denver in 1919. Russell Stover Candies made its first chocolate candy in Denver in 1923, but moved to Kansas City in 1969. The original Frontier Airlines began operations at Denver's old Stapleton International Airport in 1950; Frontier was reincarnated at DIA in 1994.
Scott's Liquid Gold, Inc., has been making furniture polish in Denver since 1954. Village Inn restaurants began as a single pancake house in Denver in 1958. Big O Tires, LLC, of Centennial opened its first franchise in 1962 in Denver. The Shane Company sold its first diamond jewelry in 1971 in Denver. In 1973 Re/Max made Denver its headquarters. Johns Manville Corp., a manufacturer of insulation and roofing products, relocated its headquarters to Denver from New York in 1972. CH2M Hill, an engineering and construction firm, relocated from Oregon to the Denver Technological Center in 1980. The Ball Corporation sold its glass business in Indiana in the 1990s and moved to suburban Broomfield; Ball has several operations in greater Denver.
Molson Coors Brewing Company established its U.S. headquarters in Denver in 2005, but announced its departure in 2019. Its subsidiary and regional wholesale distributor, Coors Distributing Company, is in NW Denver. The Newmont Mining Corporation, the second-largest gold producer in North America and one of the largest in the world, is headquartered in Denver. MapQuest, an online site for maps, directions and business listings, is headquartered in Denver's LoDo district.
In 2005, a $310.7 million expansion of the Colorado Convention Center was completed, doubling its size. The hope was the center's expansion would elevate the city to one of the top 10 cities in the nation for holding a convention.[115]
Denver's position near the mineral-rich Rocky Mountains encouraged mining and energy companies to spring up in the area. In the early days of the city, gold and silver booms and busts played a large role in the city's economic success. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the energy crisis in America and resulting high oil prices created an energy boom in Denver captured in the soap opera Dynasty. Denver was built up considerably during this time with the construction of many new downtown skyscrapers. When the price of oil dropped from $34 a barrel in 1981 to $9 a barrel in 1986, the Denver economy also dropped, leaving almost 15,000 oil industry workers in the area unemployed (including former mayor and governor John Hickenlooper, a former geologist), and the nation's highest office vacancy rate (30%).[116] The industry has recovered and the region has 700 employed petroleum engineers.[117] Advances in hydraulic fracturing have made the DJ Basin of Colorado into an accessible and lucrative oil play. Energy and mining are still important in Denver's economy today, with companies such as Ovintiv, Halliburton, Smith International, Rio Tinto Group, Newmont Mining, and Chevron Corporation, headquartered or having significant operations. Denver is in 149th place in terms of the cost of doing business in the United States.[118]
Denver's west-central geographic location in the Mountain Time Zone (UTC−7) also benefits the telecommunications industry by allowing communication with both North American coasts, South America, Europe, and Asia on the same business day. Denver's location on the 105th meridian at over one mile (1.6 km) in elevation also enables it to be the largest city in the U.S. to offer a "one-bounce" real-time satellite uplink to six continents in the same business day. Qwest Communications now part of CenturyLink, Dish Network Corporation, Starz, DIRECTV, and Comcast are a few of the many telecommunications companies with operations in the Denver area. These and other high-tech companies had a boom in Denver in the mid to late 1990s. After a rise in unemployment in the Great Recession, Denver's unemployment rate recovered and had one of the lowest unemployment rates in the nation at 2.6% in November 2016.[119] As of December 2016, the unemployment rate for the Denver–Aurora–Broomfield MSA is 2.6%.[120] The Downtown region has seen increased real estate investment[121][needs update] with the construction of several new skyscrapers from 2010 onward and major development around Denver Union Station.
Apollo Hall opened soon after the city's founding in 1859 and staged many plays for eager settlers.[39] In the 1880s Horace Tabor built Denver's first opera house. After the start of the 20th century, city leaders embarked on a city beautification program that created many of the city's parks, parkways, museums, and the Municipal Auditorium, which was home to the 1908 Democratic National Convention and is now known as the Ellie Caulkins Opera House. Denver and the metropolitan areas around it continued to support culture.[125][126]
In 1988, voters in the Denver Metropolitan Area approved the Scientific and Cultural Facilities Tax (commonly known as SCFD), a 0.1% (1 cent per $10) sales tax that contributes money to various cultural and scientific facilities and organizations throughout the Metro area.[129] The tax was renewed by voters in 1994 and 2004 and allowed the SCFD to operate until 2018.[130] Ballot issue 4B in 2016 won approval 62.8 percent to 37.2 percent, by Denver metro area voters, to extend the SCFD sales tax until 2030.[131]
Denver is home to a wide array of museums.[132] Many are nationally recognized, including a new wing for the Denver Art Museum by architect Daniel Libeskind, the nation's second-largest Performing Arts Center after Lincoln Center in New York City, and bustling neighborhoods such as LoDo, filled with art galleries, restaurants, bars and clubs. That is part of the reason Denver was, in 2006, recognized for the third year in a row as the best city for singles.[133] Its neighborhoods also continue their influx of diverse people and businesses while the city's cultural institutions grow and prosper. The city acquired the estate of abstract expressionist painter Clyfford Still in 2004 and built a museum to exhibit his works near the Denver Art Museum.[134] The Denver Museum of Nature and Science holds an aquamarine specimen valued at over $1 million, as well as specimens of the state mineral, rhodochrosite. Every September the Denver Mart, at 451 E. 58th Avenue, hosts a gem and mineral show.[135] The state history museum, History Colorado Center, opened in April 2012. It features hands-on and interactive exhibits, artifacts and programs about Colorado history.[136] It was named in 2013 by True West Magazine as one of the top-ten "must see" history museums in the country.[137] History Colorado's Byers-Evans House Museum and the Molly Brown House are nearby.
Because of its proximity to the mountains and generally sunny weather, Denver has gained a reputation as being a very active, outdoor-oriented city. Many Denver residents spend the weekends in the mountains; skiing in the winter and hiking, climbing, kayaking, and camping in the summer.
Denver and surrounding cities are home to a large number of local and national breweries. Many of the region's restaurants have on-site breweries, and some larger brewers offer tours, including Coors and New Belgium Brewing Company. The city also welcomes visitors from around the world when it hosts the annual Great American Beer Festival each fall.
Denver used to be a major trading center for beef and livestock when ranchers would drive (or later transport) cattle to the Denver Union Stockyards for sale. As a celebration of that history, for more than a century Denver has hosted the annual National Western Stock Show, attracting as many as 10,000 animals and 700,000 attendees. The show is held every January at the National Western Complex northeast of downtown.
The Dragon Boat Festival in July, Moon Festival in September and Chinese New Year are annual events in Denver for the Chinese and Asian-American communities. Chinese hot pot (huo guo) and Korean BBQ restaurants have been growing in popularity. The Denver area has two Chinese newspapers, the Chinese American Post and the Colorado Chinese News.[141] A Korean Newspaper, the "Colorado Times News" is also based in Denver.[142]
Denver has long been a place tolerant of the LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) community. Many gay bars can be found on Colfax Avenue and on South Broadway. Every June, Denver hosts the annual Denver PrideFest in Civic Center Park, the largest LGBTQ Pride festival in the Rocky Mountain region.[143]
Denver is home to a variety of sports teams and is one of 12 U.S. cities with teams from four major league sports (the Denver metro area is the smallest metropolitan area in the country to have a team in all four major sports leagues). Including MLS soccer, it is also one of 10 U.S. cities to have five major sports teams.
The Denver Broncos of the National Football League have drawn crowds of over 70,000 since their origins in the early 1960s, and continue to draw fans today to their current home Empower Field at Mile High. The Broncos have sold out every home game (except for strike-replacement games) since 1970.[144] The Broncos have advanced to eight Super Bowls and won back-to-back titles in 1997 and 1998, and won again in 2015.
The Colorado Rockies were created as an expansion franchise in 1993 and Coors Field opened in 1995. The Rockies advanced to the playoffs that year but were eliminated in the first round. In 2007, they advanced to the playoffs as a wild-card entrant, won the NL Championship Series, and brought the World Series to Denver for the first time but were swept in four games by the Boston Red Sox.
Denver has several additional professional teams. In 2006, Denver established a Major League Lacrosse team, the Denver Outlaws. They play in Empower Field at Mile High. In 2006, the Denver Outlaws won the Western Conference Championship and then won their first championship in 2014 eight years later. They also won in 2016 and 2018 and would fold in 2020 with the MLL-PLL merger. The Colorado Mammoth of the National Lacrosse League play at Ball Arena. They won championships in 2006 and 2022.
Denver submitted the winning bid to host the 1976 Winter Olympics but subsequently withdrew, giving it the distinction of being the first city to back out after having won its bid to host the Olympics.[57] Denver and Colorado Springs hosted the 1962 World Ice Hockey Championships.
As of 2006[update], Denver had over 200 parks, from small pocket parks all over the city to the giant 314-acre (1.27 km2) City Park.[151] Denver also has 29 recreation centers providing places and programming for resident's recreation and relaxation.[152]
Many of Denver's parks were acquired from state lands in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This coincided with the City Beautiful movement, and Denver mayor Robert Speer (1904–12 and 1916–18) set out to expand and beautify the city's parks. Reinhard Schuetze was the city's first landscape architect, and he brought his German-educated landscaping genius to Washington Park, Cheesman Park, and City Park among others. Speer used Schuetze as well as other landscape architects such as Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. and Saco Rienk DeBoer to design not only parks such as Civic Center Park, but many city parkways and tree-lawns. Cheesman Park neighbor the Denver Botanic Gardens displays the beauty and versatility of micro-climates within the semi-arid Denver Basin. All of these parks were fed with South Platte River water diverted through the city ditch.[153]
In addition to the parks within Denver, the city acquired land for mountain parks starting in the 1911s.[154] Over the years, Denver has acquired, built and maintained approximately 14,000 acres (57 km2) of mountain parks, including Red Rocks Park, which is known for its scenery and musical history revolving around the unique Red Rocks Amphitheatre.[155][156] Denver also owns the mountain on which the Winter Park Resort ski area operates in Grand County, 67 miles (110 km) west of Denver.[157] City parks are important places for Denverites and visitors, inciting controversy with every change. Denver continues to grow its park system with the development of many new parks along the Platte River through the city, and with Central Park and Bluff Lake Nature Center in the Central Park neighborhood redevelopment. All of these parks are important gathering places for residents and allow what was once a dry plain to be lush, active, and green. Denver is also home to a large network of public community gardens, most of which are managed by Denver Urban Gardens, a non-profit organization.
Since 1974, Denver and the surrounding jurisdictions have rehabilitated the urban South Platte River and its tributaries for recreational use by hikers and cyclists. The main stem of the South Platte River Greenway runs along the South Platte 35 miles (56 km) into Adams County in the north. The Greenway project is recognized as one of the best urban reclamation projects in the U.S., winning, for example, the Silver Medal Rudy Bruner Award for Urban Excellence in 2001.[158]
As of 2022[update], Park Score by the Trust for Public Land, a national land conservation organization, reported Denver as having the 18th best park system among the 50 most populous U.S. cities. The report noted that 89% of Denverites live within a 10-minute walk of a park.[159]
Denver is a consolidated city-county with a mayor elected on a nonpartisan ballot, a 13-member city council, and an auditor. The Denver City Council is elected from 11 districts with two at-large council members and is responsible for passing and changing all laws, resolutions, and ordinances, usually after a public hearing. The city council can also call for misconduct investigations of Denver's departmental officials. All elected officials have four-year terms, with a maximum of three terms. The current mayor is Mike Johnston.
Denver has a strong mayor/weak city council government. The mayor can approve or veto any ordinances or resolutions approved by the council, makes sure all contracts with the city are kept and performed, signs all bonds and contracts, is responsible for the city budget, and can appoint people to various city departments, organizations, and commissions. The council can override the mayor's veto with a nine votes. The city budget must be approved and can be changed by a simple majority vote of the council. The auditor checks all expenditures and may refuse to allow specific ones, usually for financial reasons.[160]
While Denver elections are nonpartisan, Democrats have long dominated the city's politics; most citywide officials are known to be registered with the Democratic Party. The mayor's office has been occupied by a Democrat since the 1963 municipal election. All the city's seats in the state legislature are held by Democrats.
In statewide elections, the city also tends to favor Democrats, though Republicans were occasionally competitive until the turn of the millennium. The last Republican to win Denver in a gubernatorial election was John A. Love in 1970 by a narrow majority.[161]Bill Owens in 2002 remains the last Republican governor to receive at least 40% of Denver's vote.[162] The last Republican Senator to carry Denver was William L. Armstrong during his 1984 landslide.[163] The last statewide Republican officeholder to carry Denver was Secretary of StateVictoria Buckley in 1994 by 1.2% margin; she was, at the time, the highest ranking African-American Republican woman in the United States.[164][165]
In federal elections, Denver is a Democratic stronghold. It has supported a Democrat for president in every election since 1984. Despite then-president Ronald Reagan's landslide that year both nationally and in Colorado, Democrat Walter Mondale won Denver by a margin of 2.32%, and since then the party has increased its margin in almost every election. At the federal level, Denver is the heart of Colorado's 1st congressional district, which includes all of Denver and parts of Arapahoe County. It is the most Democratic district in the Mountain West and has been in Democratic hands for all but two terms since 1933. It is currently represented by Democrat Diana DeGette. A portion of southeast Denver, roughly half of the Indian Creek neighborhood and a small part of the Virginia Village neighborhood, is in Colorado's 6th congressional district, represented by Democrat Jason Crow.
Benjamin F. Stapleton was the mayor of Denver for two periods, from 1923 to 1931 and from 1935 to 1947. He was responsible for many civic improvements, notably during his second term, when he had access to funds and manpower from the New Deal. During this time, the park system was considerably expanded and the Civic Center completed. His signature project was the construction of Denver Municipal Airport, which began in 1929 amid heavy criticism. It was later renamed Stapleton International Airport in his honor. Today, the airport has been replaced by a neighborhood initially named Stapleton. In 2020, during the George Floyd protests, because of Stapleton's demonstrated racism and prominent membership in the Ku Klux Klan, neighborhood residents changed the name to Central Park.[166][167]
During the 1960s and 1970s, Denver was one of the centers of the Chicano Movement. The boxer-turned-activist Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales formed an organization called the Crusade for Justice, which battled police brutality, fought for bilingual education, and, most notably, hosted the First National Chicano Youth Liberation Conference in March 1969.[168]
In recent years, Denver has taken a stance on helping people who are or become homeless, particularly under the administrations of mayors John Hickenlooper and Wellington Webb. At a rate of 19 homeless per 10,000 residents in 2011 as compared to 50 or more per 10,000 residents for the four metro areas with the highest rate of homelessness,[169] Denver's homeless population and rate of homeless are both considerably lower than many other major cities. But residents of the city streets suffer Denver winters – which, although mild and dry much of the time, can have brief periods of extremely cold temperatures and snow.
In 2005, Denver became the first major U.S. city to vote to make the private possession of less than an ounce of marijuana legal for adults 21 and older.[170] The city voted 53.5 percent in favor of the marijuana legalization measure, which, as then-mayor John Hickenlooper pointed out, was without effect, because the city cannot usurp state law, which at that time treated marijuana possession in much the same way as a speeding ticket, with fines of up to $100 and no jail time.[170] Denver passed an initiative in the fourth quarter of 2007 requiring the mayor to appoint an 11-member review panel to monitor the city's compliance with the 2005 ordinance.[171] In May 2019, Denver became the first U.S. city to decriminalizepsilocybin mushrooms after an initiative passed with 50.6% of the vote. The measure prohibits Denver from using any resources to prosecute adults over 21 for personal use of psilocybin mushrooms, though such use remains illegal under state and federal law.[172][173]
The City and County of Denver levies an occupational privilege tax (OPT or head tax) on employers and employees.
If any employee performs work in the city limits and is paid over $500 for that work in a single month, the employee and employer are both liable for the OPT regardless of where the main business office is located or headquartered.
The employer is liable for $4 per employee per month and the employee is liable for $5.75 per month.
It is the employer's responsibility to withhold, remit, and file the OPT returns. If an employer does not comply, the employer can be held liable for both portions of the OPT as well as penalties and interest.
Denver Public Schools (DPS) is the public school system in all of Denver.[179] It educates approximately 92,000 students in 92 elementary schools, 44 K-8 schools, 34 middle schools, 18 high schools, and 19 charter schools.[180] The first school of what is now DPS was a log cabin that opened in 1859, which later became East High School. East High School, along with the other three directional high schools (West, North, and South), made up the first four high schools in Denver.[181] The district boundaries are coextensive with the city limits.[182] The Cherry Creek School District serves some areas with Denver postal addresses that are outside the city limits.[182][183]
Denver is the 16th-largest market in the country for television, according to the 2009–2010 rankings from Nielsen Media Research.[184]
KWGN-TV, channel 2, a CWO&O station owned by Nexstar Media Group, who also owns Fox affiliate KDVR 31. KWGN is run by KDVR management and is Colorado's first TV station, on the air since July 1952.
KRMA-TV, channel 6, the flagship of Rocky Mountain PBS, a state network of five public TV stations throughout Colorado.
KMGH-TV, channel 7, an ABC affiliate owned by the E. W. Scripps Company, previously owned by the McGraw-Hill company for 40 years prior to 2012. The station is part of a duopoly with KCDO-TV.
Denver is also served by over 40 AM and FM radio stations, covering a wide variety of formats and styles. Denver–Boulder radio is the No. 19 market in the United States, according to the Spring 2011 Arbitron ranking (up from No. 20 in Fall 2009). For a list of Denver radio stations, see List of radio stations in Colorado.
After continued rivalry between Denver's two main newspapers, The Denver Post and the Rocky Mountain News, the papers merged operations in 2001 under a joint operating agreement that formed the Denver Newspaper Agency.[185] This arrangement lasted until February 2009 when the E. W. Scripps Company, the owner of the Rocky Mountain News, closed the paper. There are also several alternative or localized newspapers published in Denver, including the Westword, Law Week Colorado, Out Front Colorado, and the Intermountain Jewish News. Denver is home to multiple regional magazines such as 5280, which takes its name from the city's mile-high elevation (5,280 feet or 1,609 meters). The Colorado Times News is a Korean-language publication based in Denver.[142]
Colfax Avenue at Broadway, where the downtown street grid and the "normal" city grid meet. Colfax Avenue carries U.S. Highway 40 through Denver.
Most of Denver has a straightforward street grid oriented to the four cardinal directions. Blocks are usually identified in hundreds from the median streets, identified as "00", which are Broadway (the east–west median, running north–south) and Ellsworth Avenue (the north–south median, running east–west). Colfax Avenue, a major east–west artery through Denver, is 15 blocks (1500) north of the median. Avenues north of Ellsworth are numbered (with the exception of Colfax Avenue and several others, such as Martin Luther King, Jr. Blvd and Montview Blvd.), while avenues south of Ellsworth are named.
There is also an older downtown grid system that was designed to be parallel to the confluence of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek. Most of the streets downtown and in LoDo run northeast–southwest and northwest–southeast. This system has an unplanned benefit for snow removal; if the streets were in a normal N–S/E–W grid, only the N–S streets would receive sunlight. With the grid oriented to the diagonal directions, the NW–SE streets receive sunlight to melt snow in the morning and the NE–SW streets receive it in the afternoon. This idea was from Henry Brown the founder of the Brown Palace Hotel. There is now a plaque across the street from the Brown Palace Hotel that honors this idea. The NW–SE streets are numbered, while the NE–SW streets are named. The named streets start at the intersection of Colfax Avenue and Broadway with the block-long Cheyenne Place. The numbered streets start underneath the Colfax and I-25 viaducts. There are 27 named and 44 numbered streets on this grid. There are also a few vestiges of the old grid system in the normal grid, such as Park Avenue, Morrison Road, and Speer Boulevard. Larimer Street, named after William Larimer Jr., the founder of Denver, which is in the heart of LoDo, is the oldest street in Denver.
Speer Boulevard runs north–south through downtown Denver.
All roads in the downtown grid system are streets (e.g., 16th Street, Stout Street), except for the five NE–SW roads nearest the intersection of Colfax Avenue and Broadway: Cheyenne Place, Cleveland Place, Court Place, Tremont Place and Glenarm Place. Roads outside that system that travel east–west are designated "avenues" and those that travel north–south are designated "streets" (e.g., Colfax Avenue, Lincoln Street). Boulevards are higher capacity streets and travel any direction (more commonly north and south). Smaller roads are sometimes referred to as places, drives (though not all drives are smaller capacity roads; some are major thoroughfares), or courts. Most streets outside the area between Broadway and Colorado Boulevard are organized alphabetically from the city's center.
East of Colorado Boulevard, the naming convention of streets takes on a predictable pattern of going through the alphabet by using each letter twice (i.e. AA, BB, CC, DD, through YY – there is no Z). The first street is almost always named after a plant or fruit, the second street is almost always named after a foreign place or location. For example, Jersey Street / Jasmine Street, Quebec Street / Quince Street, and Syracuse Street / Spruce Street. Inexplicably, the letter Y only has one street (Yosemite), and there is no Z. This double-alphabet naming convention continues in some form into Aurora, Colorado.
Some Denver streets have bicycle lanes, leaving a patchwork of disjointed routes throughout the city. There are over 850 miles (1,370 km)[186] of paved, off-road, bike paths in Denver parks and along bodies of water, like Cherry Creek and the South Platte. This allows for a significant portion of Denver's population to be bicycle commuters and has led to Denver being known as a bicycle-friendly city.[187] Some residents strongly oppose bike lanes, which has caused some plans to be watered down or nixed. The review process for one bike line on Broadway will last over a year before city council members will make a decision. In addition to the many bike paths, Denver launched B-Cycle – a citywide bicycle sharing program – in late April 2010. The B-Cycle network was the largest in the United States at the time of its launch, boasting 400 bicycles.[188]
The Denver Boot, a car-disabling device, was first used in Denver.[189]
The League of American Bicyclists rated Colorado as the sixth most bicycle-friendly state in the nation for 2024. This is due in large part to Front Range cities like Boulder, Fort Collins and Denver placing an emphasis on legislation, programs and infrastructure developments that promote cycling as a mode of transportation.[190]Walk Score has rated Denver as the fourth most bicycle-friendly large city in the United States.[191] According to data from the 2011 American Community Survey, Denver ranks 6th among US cities with populations over 400,000 in terms of the percentage of workers who commute by bicycle at 2.2% of commuters.[192]
B-Cycle – Denver's citywide bicycle sharing program – was the largest in the United States at the time of its launch in 2010, boasting 400 bicycles.[188] B-Cycle ridership peaked in 2014, then steadily declined. The program announced it would cease operations at the end of January 2020.[193][194][195] The city announced plans to seek one or more new contractors to run a bike-share program starting mid-2020.[196][197]
In 2018, electric scooter services began to place scooters in Denver. Hundreds of unsanctioned LimeBike and Bird electric scooters appeared on Denver streets in May, causing an uproar. In June, the city ordered the companies to remove them[198] and acted quickly to create an official program, including a requirement that scooters be left at RTD stops and out of the public right-of-way. Lime and Bird scooters then reappeared in late July, with limited compliance. Uber's Jump e-bikes arrived in late August, followed by Lyft's nationwide electric scooter launch in early September.[199] Lyft says that it will, each night, take the scooters to the warehouse for safety checks, maintenance and charging. Additionally, Spin and Razor each were permitted to add 350 scooters.[200]
2017 rankings by Walk Score placed Denver twenty-sixth among 108 U.S. cities with a population of 200,000 or greater.[191] City leaders have acknowledged the concerns of walkability advocates that Denver has serious gaps in its sidewalk network. The 2019 "Denver Moves: Pedestrians" plan outlines a need for approximate $1.3 billion in sidewalk funding, plus $400 million for trails.[201] In 2022, Denver voters passed Initiative 307, dubbed "Denver Deserves Sidewalks", to complete sidewalk construction and repair by shifting responsibility for sidewalk maintenance from property owners to the city and imposing a new fee on property owners based on the length of a property's sidewalk frontage,[202] although the measure may be revised in the course of implementation.[203]
In 2015, 9.6 percent of Denver households lacked a car, and in 2016, this was virtually unchanged (9.4 percent). The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Denver averaged 1.62 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.[204]
Denver is primarily served by the interstate freeways I-25 and I-70. The problematic intersection of the two interstates is referred to locally as "the mousetrap" because, when viewed from the air, the junction (and subsequent vehicles) resemble mice in a large trap.
Interstate 225 traverses neighboring Aurora. I-225 was designed to link Aurora with I-25 in the southeastern corner of Denver, and I-70 to the north of Aurora, with construction starting May 1964 and ending May 21, 1976.
Interstate 70 runs east–west from Utah to Maryland. It is also the primary corridor on which motorists access the mountains.
Interstate 76 begins from I-70 just west of the city in Arvada. It intersects I-25 north of the city and runs northeast to Nebraska where it ends at I-80.
State Highway 93 starts in the western Metropolitan area in Golden, Colorado, and travels almost 19 miles (31 km) to meet with SH 119 in central Boulder. This highway is often used as an alternate route to Boulder instead of taking US 36.
State Highway 470 (C-470, SH 470) is the southwestern portion of the Denver metro area's beltway. Originally planned as Interstate 470 in the 1960s, the beltway project was attacked on environmental impact grounds and the interstate beltway was never built. The portion of "Interstate 470" built as a state highway is the present-day SH 470, which is a freeway for its entire length.
Denver also has a nearly complete beltway known as "the 470's". These are SH 470 (also known as C-470), a freeway in the southwest Metro area, and two toll highways, E-470 (from southeast to northeast) and Northwest Parkway (from terminus of E-470 to US 36). SH 470 was intended to be I-470 and built with federal highway funds, but the funding was redirected to complete conversion of downtown Denver's 16th Street to a pedestrian mall. As a result, construction was delayed until 1980 after state and local legislation was passed.[205] I-470 was also once called "The Silver Stake Highway", from Gov. Lamm's declared intention to drive a silver stake through it and kill it.
A highway expansion and transit project for the southern I-25 corridor, dubbed T-REX (Transportation Expansion Project), was completed on November 17, 2006.[206] The project installed wider and additional highway lanes, and improved highway access and drainage. The project also includes a light rail line that traverses from downtown to the south end of the metro area at Lincoln Avenue.[207] The project spanned almost 19 miles (31 km) along the highway with an additional line traveling parallel to part of I-225, stopping just short of Parker Road.
FasTracks is a commuter rail, light rail, and bus expansion project approved by voters in 2004, which will serve neighboring suburbs and communities. The W Line, or West line, opened in April 2013 serving Golden/Federal Center. The commuter rail A Line from Denver Union Station to Denver International Airport opened in April 2016 with ridership exceeding RTD's early expectations.[209] The light rail R Line through Aurora opened in February 2017.[210] The G Line to the suburb of Arvada (originally planned to open in the Fall of 2016) opened on April 26, 2019.[211] The N Line to Commerce City and Thornton opened on September 21, 2020.[212]
An express bus service, known as the Flatiron Flyer, serves to connect Boulder and Denver. The service, billed as bus rapid transit, has been accused of bus rapid transit creep for failing to meet the majority of BRT requirements, including level boarding and all-door entry. A commuter rail connection to Boulder and its suburb of Longmont, also part of the FasTracks ballot initiative and an extension of the B Line, is planned to be finished by RTD, but no construction funds have yet been identified prior to 2040.[213] RTD is currently considering an interim commuter service which would run rush-hour trains from Longmont to Denver.
Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Denver, operating its California Zephyr daily in both directions between Chicago and Emeryville, California, across the bay from San Francisco. Amtrak Thruway service operated by private bus companies links the Denver station with Rocky Mountain points. In 2017 the Colorado legislature reinvigorated studies of passenger rail service along the Front Range, potentially connecting Denver to Fort Collins and Pueblo, or further to Amtrak connections in Cheyenne, Wyoming and Trinidad.[215]Front Range Passenger Rail is a current proposal (as of 2023) to link the cities from Pueblo in the south, north to Fort Collins and possibly to Cheyenne, Wyoming.[216]
At Albuquerque, New Mexico, Denver Thruway connections are made daily with the Amtrak Southwest Chief. Additionally, the Ski Train operated on the former Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, which took passengers between Denver and the Winter Park Ski Resort, but it is no longer in service. The Ski Train made its final run to Winter Park on March 29, 2009. The service was revived on a trial basis in 2016 with a great amount of local fanfare. Further development of a mountain corridor rail option, though publicly popular, has been met with resistance from politicians, namely the director of Colorado Department of Transportation.[217][failed verification] The Ski Train did return to service under Amtrak with the name "Winter Park Express" in 2017 and greatly expanded service for the 2024-2025 ski season, doubling capacity and increasing service to run Thursday-Monday during the winter ski seasons. The Colorado Department of Transportation plans to eventually expand service to Steamboat Springs and Craig as part of the Mountain Rail project.[218]
Denver's early years as a major train hub of the west are still very visible today. Trains stop in Denver at historic Union Station, where travelers can access RTD's 16th Street Free MallRide or use light rail to tour the city. Union Station will also serve as the main juncture for rail travel in the metro area, at the completion of FasTracks. The city also plans to invest billions to bringing frequent public transit within one-fourth of a mile of most of its residents.[219]
The average amount of time people spend commuting on public transit in Denver and Boulder, Colorado—for example, to and from work, on a weekday—is 77 minutes; 31% of public transit riders ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 14 minutes, while 25% of riders wait for over 20 minutes, on average, every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 6.96 miles (11.20 km), while 31% travel over 7.46 miles (12.01 km) in a single direction.[220]
Denver International Airport (IATA: DEN, ICAO: KDEN), commonly known as DIA, serves as the primary airport for the Front Range Urban Corridor surrounding Denver. DIA is 18.6 miles (30 km) east-northeast of the Colorado State Capitol and opened in 1995. DIA is the 3rd busiest airport in the world with 58.8 million passengers in 2021;[221] it had the 5th highest number of passengers in the U.S., 61 million, in the pre-pandemic year 2019.[222] It covers more than 52.4 square miles (135.7 km2), making it the largest airport by land area in the United States and larger than the island of Manhattan.[223] DIA serves as a major hub for United Airlines, is the headquarters and primary hub for Frontier Airlines, and is a major focus city and the fastest-growing market for Southwest Airlines.
Three general aviation airports serve the Denver area. Rocky Mountain Metropolitan Airport (KBJC) is 13.7 miles (22 km) north-northwest, Centennial Airport (KAPA) is 13.7 miles (22 km) south-southeast, and Colorado Air and Space Port (KCFO), formerly Front Range Airport, is 23.7 miles (38 km) east of the state capitol. Centennial Airport also offers limited commercial airline service, on two cargo airlines.
In the past, Denver has been home to several other airports that are no longer operational. Stapleton International Airport was closed in 1995 when it was replaced by DIA. Lowry Air Force Base was a military flight training facility that ceased flight operations in 1966, with the base finally closing in 1994. Both Stapleton and Lowry have since been redeveloped into primarily residential neighborhoods. Buckley Space Force Base is the only military facility in the Denver area.
Denver's relationship with Brest, France, began in 1948, making it the second-oldest sister city in the United States.[224] In 1947, Amanda Knecht, a teacher at East High School, visited World War II–ravaged Brest. When she returned, she shared her experiences in the city with her students, and her class raised $32,000 to help rebuild the children's wing of Brest's hospital. The gift led to the development of the sister city program with Brest.[225] There were serious efforts in the early 2000s, in both Denver and Sochi, Russian Federation, to establish sister-city ties, but the negotiations did not come to fruition.
Since then, Denver has established relationships with additional sister cities:[226]
^ abDenver has maintained its official mile-high elevation of 5,280 feet (1,609.344 m) for more than a century. When the National Geodetic Survey makes adjustments to its national elevation measurements, the State of Colorado moves the official mile-high elevation point up or down the west steps of the Colorado State Capitol to reflect the changes. Most of Denver actually lies above this elevation.
^Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020.
^ ab"The town of Argo was one of the municipalities which by virtue of the amendment became merged in the city and county of Denver. But it did not become so merged, nor did the terms of its officers terminate, until the 1st day of December, 1902--the day the proclamation was issued." Boston & Colorado Smelting Co. v. Elder, 77 P. 258, 259-60 (1904).
^ ab"[T]he city and county of Denver ... did not come into being until the day of the issuance of the Governor's proclamation, on December 1, 1902". City Council of the City and County of Denver v. Board of Commissioners of Adams County, 77 P. 858, 861 (1904).
^"Treaty of Fort Laramie with Sioux, Etc., 1851." 11 Stats. 749, Sept. 17, 1851.
^ abHoig, Stan. (1980). The Peace Chiefs of the Cheyennes. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN0-8061-1573-4.
^ abcdGreene, Jerome A. (2004). Washita, The Southern Cheyenne and the U.S. Army. Campaigns and Commanders Series, vol. 3. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN0-8061-3551-4.
^"Treaty with the Arapaho and Cheyenne, 1861" (Treaty of Fort Wise). 12 Stat. 1163, p. 810.
^Life of George Bent: Written From His Letters, by George E. Hyde, edited by Savoie Lottinville, University of Oklahoma Press (1968), hardcover, 390 pages; trade paperback, 280 pages (March 1983) ISBN0-8061-1577-7ISBN978-0806115771
^ ab"State Government History". State of Colorado, Department of Personnel & Administration, Colorado State Archives. April 18, 2001. Archived from the original on August 23, 2003. Retrieved November 28, 2006.
^"Colorado Municipal Incorporations". State of Colorado, Department of Personnel & Administration, Colorado State Archives. December 1, 2004. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved November 28, 2006.
^Magazine, Smithsonian. "How the 1867 Medicine Lodge Treaty Changed the Plains Indian Tribes Forever." Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institution, October 23, 2017. Link.
^Baker, Gayle, Denver, HarborTown Histories. Santa Barbara, California, p. 31-33, ISBN9780971098442 (print), 9780987903860 (on-line)
^Johnson, Carl J. (October 1981). "Cancer Incidence in an Area Contaminated with Radionuclides Near a Nuclear Installation". Ambio. 10 (4): 176–182. JSTOR4312671. PMID7348208., cited in Moore 2007, pp. 103–109.
^Woods, Katherine (1998). "Park Hill, Denver". Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research. 4 (2). U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development: 89–103. Archived from the original on September 4, 2006. Retrieved January 11, 2006.
^"Adams County, Colorado". Tornado History Project. Archived from the original on April 3, 2016. Retrieved April 7, 2016.
^Church, Christopher R. (1993). The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards. American Geophysical Union. p. 353. ISBN9780875900384.
^Meyer, Thomas A.; Bobb, William R.; Dulong, Thomas W. "Denver Air Route Traffic Control Thunderstorm Patterns"(PDF). Denver Center Weather Service Unit, Longmont, Colorado. National Weather Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2004-07-11. Retrieved May 22, 2014.
^Metro Denver Economic Development Corporation (January 2017). "Monthly Economic Summary". Metro Denver Economic Development Corporation. Archived from the original on February 18, 2014. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
^"Denver Moves: Transit"(PDF). Denver Department of Public Works. City and County of Denver. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2019-05-13. Retrieved May 13, 2019.
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